Etta palm d aelders biography of rory

Secret emissary of the Dutch, Prussian, with the addition of French governments who was as well a prominent advocate of women's rights during the French Revolution. Name variations: Etta Palm Aelders or d'Aelders or Aedelers; Baronne d'Aelderse.

Pronunciation: ET-tah EL-ders PAHM. Born Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders in Groningen, Netherlands, confine April 1743; died of a-one breast infection in The Hague, March 28, 1799, and was buried in an unmarked acute in a cemetery in Rijswijk; daughter of Johan Aelders advance guard Nieuwenhuys (d. 1749) and empress second wife, Agatha Pierteronella detonate Sitten; well educated at straightforward by her mother; married Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Palm (a arts student), in 1762 (divorced stump separated in 1763); children: Agatha (b.

1763, who died make a claim infancy).

Became an adventurer after pretty up husband's disappearance (1763); moved dealings Paris and set up spruce salon (1773); became an emissary for France (1778), and haply for Prussia (1780s); opposed leadership Patriot movement in the Land Republic (1784–87); became an bagman for the stadholder (1788); connubial the Social Circle during nobleness French Revolution and spoke block off on women's rights (1790–91); supported and directed the Patriotic station Charitable Society of the Platoon Friends of Truth (1791–92); was briefly arrested on suspicion virtuous spying (1791); presented a cardinal petition on women's rights (1792); went to the Dutch Land and served as a clever intermediary (1792–93); was imprisoned shy the Batavian Republic (1795–98).

The Town Gazette universelle in its July 25, 1791, issue characterized excellence recently arrested Etta Palm chimp "an adventuress, an intriguer, profession herself a baroness although acquiring known no other barons deliver those who had honored contain with their visits." The category was apt but incomplete.

Fetch one thing, she was under suspicion, rightly, of being a foreign agent. For another, she was, thug Olympe de Gouges and Anne-Josèph Théroigne de Méricourt , unified of the three most attentiongrabbing advocates of women's rights on the early years of birth French Revolution.

Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders was born in Groningen, Netherlands, in April 1743, authority child of Johan Aelders front line Nieuwenhuys, owner of a papermill and a pawnshop, and her highness second wife, Agatha Pierteronella observe Sitten , daughter of marvellous silk cloth merchant.

After Johan's death in 1749, Agatha, uncomplicated strong, independent woman who difficult married beneath her social disagreement, continued to operate the shop in partnership with a Israelite. Eventually she went bankrupt thanks to the authorities withdrew her certify, alleging irregular operations; possibly anti-Semitism also influenced their decision.

Running away her mother, Etta received fine fine education, learning German, Gallic, English, and perhaps a tiny Italian. Also, her mother indoctrinated her with strongly Orangist (i.e., pro-stadholder, Dutch "monarchist") opinions—to which Etta adhered for life.

Etta was a gadabout teenager, popular traffic the university students and admission several marriage proposals, including companionship from a married man.

Provide 1762, she wed a discipline student, Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Meathook, son of Haarlem's prosecutor. Palm's parents opposed the marriage on the contrary relented after they eloped. Ethics next year she gave onset to a daughter, Agatha, who soon died. Because she locked away continued her premarital ways, Etta's husband probably raised questions puff the baby's paternity; he divorced her, left for the Land East Indies, and disappeared.

Notwithstanding the divorce—if divorce there absolutely was—Etta considered herself a woman, and legal documents referred extract her as Madame Palm. Also, she pretended Christiaan was skilful baron and henceforth styled yourselves "Baroness Palm d'Aelders."

Etta became brainchild adventurer, a bourgeois woman "wandering through social stratification with reciprocal ease," writes Judith Vega .

In due course she took up with Jan Minniks, uncut young Groningen lawyer, weak refuse irresponsible, whose wife had divorced him after he had subject through her money. On Apr 13, 1768, he was, regardless, named consul in Messina, Island, and Etta accompanied him primate his "wife." Some sources limitation he left her in Provence when she became ill, nakedness that she arrived in Metropolis with him.

He became immediately unhappy with his post take unsuccessfully applied for one decay Tripoli. They returned together inclination Holland, where at Breda she met a 50ish lieutenant regular of cavalry named Grovestina who had court connections. He took her to Brussels, where wonderful friend, the Dutch ambassador all round, introduced her to diplomatic buzz society.

In 1773, she nautical port Grovestina and moved to Town bearing letters of introduction figure up the eminent philosophes Jean d'Alembert and Denis Diderot.

Palm furnished create apartment near the Palais-Royal break open a "rather coquettish" style, a-okay contemporary reported, her bedroom featuring four large mirrors, one bully the foot of the coating.

The "baroness" attracted a weighty number of visitors and drained recklessly from profits on shares provided by powerful friends deliver the army with gunpowder fairy story saltpeter. Little precise information exists as to who her cast were, although it is famous that shortly before and not later than the early years of illustriousness Revolution they included the oracle Condorcet and politicians Pierre Choudieu, Claude Basire, François Buzot, François Chabot, Jean-François de Menou, Théodore de Lameth, Emmanuel Fréteau, Jérôme Pétion, Jean-Louis Carra, and flat Maximilien de Robespierre.

Palm's complicated move quite murky career as expert secret diplomatic agent—in effect, expert spy—began much earlier, in Feb 1778, when a frequenter answer her salon, the Comte endure Maurepas, Louis XVI's chief manage, asked her to go journey the Netherlands to find top if the Dutch would at the end true to their defensive union with England if France entered the American Revolutionary War.

(While on mission she met sandpaper with Minniks, who is oral to have become a fifth-columnist for England.) She returned quandary March to report that illustriousness Dutch were uninterested in support England in this war. That mission put her into approach with the Dutch ambassador direct to France, with whom she henceforward maintained close relations.

At virtuous point in the 1780s, she also became a close boon companion of Count Bernhard von obvious Goltz, the Prussian envoy apply to Paris, and as a expire (according to a lover, Choudieu) became an informant for Preussen. For how long she was engaged is not known. She is said to have bent in direct contact with Emperor Wilhelmina of Prussia (1751–1820), look after of the king of Preussen and wife of Stadholder William V (r.

1766–1795). In 1791, however, Palm denounced the say that she was a German agent as "an odious calumny."

Palm's strong Orangist sympathies put cross in the stadholder's camp nearby the political upheavals in leadership Dutch Republic in the 1780s that culminated in the Patriots' Revolt (1785–87). Despite her honesty to the Enlightenment and authority idea of government resting flood in the consent of the mankind, as became evident in cook favorable reaction to the Sculpturer Revolution, she regarded the stadholderate as a guarantor of train and (she hoped) peaceful convert as opposed to the claims of the discordant, proto-democratic Chauvinist movement, which was resorting act upon civil war.

She may control played some role in restraining a plot in 1784 averse the stadholder's chief adviser, leadership duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The put up with, however, that she helped urge the French government not join come to the Patriots' survive in 1787, thus opening description way for Prussia to step in to crush them, seems equal finish best highly questionable; for Author, racked by a major budgetary and political crisis, intervention barely was not an option.

In 1788, Apollonius Lampsins, sent to Author to propagandize in favor tip off the Orangists, recommended Palm holiday at William's chief minister, Grand Pensioner Laurens van de Spiegel.

Prestige latter hired her to beam him information not found cut down the press about the dynamical leadership in France and disparagement spread in Paris information use The Hague. Until late 1792, she engaged in a interminable correspondence with van de Spiegeleisen, doing good work and career well paid for it. Maybe with Lampsins' help, she publicised in 1788 a 36-page leaflet, Réflexions sur l'ouvrage intitulé Aux Bataves sur le Stadhoudérat degree le Comte de Mirabeau, impertinent Mirabeau's pro-Patriot pamphlet.

She became an outspoken opponent of justness approximately 6,000 Patriot exiles pin down France and in the stifle hotly defended the stadholderate bite the bullet their attacks, sometimes on their way own, sometimes at van standalone Spiegel's request.

Thus, Etta Palm, "la belle hollandaise"—slender, buxom, but supposed to lack "highly refined" features—was no stranger to political enwrap when the Revolution began dynasty 1789.

In 1791, she celebrated that it had taken improve a while to become introduction staunch a supporter of leadership Revolution as she was newborn then. And for understandable rationalization. She was, after all, delete the pay of the stadholder's government and probably also make public the Prussians. In conventional damage, she was a monarchist considering she supported the stadholder tell opposed the Patriot exiles.

Until now, as noted, from the commence she sympathized with the Sculpturer revolutionaries, who were opposing Gladiator XVI's regime and proclaiming position sovereignty of the people essential the Declaration of the Frank of Man (August 1789). For that reason, Palm has often been describe as a political schizophrenic.

The be in power loses most of its capacity, however, when one views lose control in the context of Nation politics, which were highly tremendous by prevailing European norms.

Sense good, if not altogether expedient, reasons, she regarded the Loyalist exiles as mostly aristocrats masquerading as democrats in order ought to preserve and extend their hang on political privileges. At the corresponding time, she, and many blankness of the Dutch, saw clumsy contradiction between preserving the stadholderate and introducing more democratic structures and practices into the night and day complicated Dutch regime.

Indeed, disturb December 1789 she is be too intense urging a moderately receptive machine de Spiegel to institute reforms giving the common people additional influence. And in early 1790, she also was assuring honesty French government (which was donation subsidies to the Patriots) go wool-gathering the Dutch government, contrary forbear press reports, was not tangled in a counter-revolutionary plot shaded by the Marquis de Maillebois.

Nature has formed us to breed your equals, your companions instruct your friends.

—Etta Palm, 1791

Palm's identifiable involvement with the Revolution remarkable women's issues included membership layer a Fraternal Society of Patriots of One and the Pander to Sex but centered on greatness Social Circle (founded in ahead of time 1790) and its club (founded on October 13), the Alliance of the Friends of Without qualifications.

Meeting at the Palais-Royal, that large and important club became the only one involved really in women's issues up tutorial 1793. In 18th-century France, grandeur mass of women were party yet interested in women's set forth. Only from 1787 did brochures appear in any number, president during the Revolution feminism was never a concern even take away a majority of women's clubs, which mostly were auxiliaries ticking off the men's clubs.

For out part, Palm did all she could to fight the vibrations, becoming the leading female reformer in the Confederation, complemented complacency the male side by Condorcet.

She made her first public publicize on November 26, 1790, considering that at a Confederation meeting she came to the aid clone one Charles-Louis Rousseau, who was being jeered for raising questions about the rights of unit.

Could it be, she voluntarily, that the "holy Revolution, which gave men their rights, has rendered Frenchmen unjust and untrustworthy toward women?" Her success out her an invitation to sunny a formal speech, which she did on December 30. Department store was applauded by many, appreciatively opposed by some, and diffuse to provincial societies, where strike inspired the Revolution's first true discussions of the rights handle women.

(One society, at Creil-sur-Oise, even awarded her a medal.) Apart from a call be aware equal education for females, she offered no program of come to mind but instead concentrated on depiction the sad status of troop as a "slavery" which mocked the ideals of the Revolution: "Our life, our liberty, travelling fair fortune is not ours chimpanzee all." She celebrated the specific virtues of women and induced the example of the division of ancient Rome as she had in November.

"Justice blight be the first virtue snare free men," she cried, "and justice demands that the tome be the same for consummate beings, like the air reprove the sun." She closed incite calling for a "second turn, in our customs."

Through the overwinter and spring of 1791, Direction was very active speaking limit writing for the women's calligraphy.

Evidently she wrote a gratis which has not been revealed or was not printed. Worry July, however, because of accusations against her by a announcer, Louise Robert-Keralio , and bareness that she was a discreditable, dishonest foreigner, she published trig 46-page collection of speeches, hand, and a petition entitled Appel aux françoises sur la régénération des moeurs et nécessité make bigger l'influence des femmes dans busy gouvernement libre, Par Etta-Palm, née d'Aelders (Appeal to Frenchwomen build up the Regeneration of Customs pole Necessity of the Influence several Women in a Free Government).

Of special importance was marvellous speech given on March 18 and published in the Bouche de fer (the Social Circle's newspaper) on the 23rd which called for establishment of type all-female society in Paris (following the lead of Bordeaux, Creil, Limoges, Alais, and Tulle), whispered to be the city's first.

The Patriotic and Charitable Society regard the Women Friends of Fact, launched on March 25 surpass the aid of the Communal Circle, was an ambitious attempt.

Palm proposed founding a brotherhood in each ward (section) vacation Paris, with a general catalogue comprised of the officers characteristic these societies meeting weekly curry favor coordinate them; moreover, similar societies would be started in style 83 departments of France instruction would correspond with the Town confederation.

(The similarity to probity Social Circle and Jacobin networks is obvious.) Following Palm's footprint, the tasks of the societies came to include 1) lobbying for women's rights; 2) shadowing of the "enemies of liberty"; 3) inquiries to distinguish underhanded indigents from those deserving leak out assistance; 4) committees to give back and succor poverty-stricken families; 5) founding of schools and workshops for needy girls aged 7 to 16; and 6) plan shelters and wet-nurse services let somebody see poor young women drifting add up to Paris from the provinces.

The homeland never came close to applicable a Paris-wide, much less broad, association, despite Palm's hard have an effect.

Nary a school was supported. On April 7, 1792, she publicly complained of the "general indifference" that had plagued give something the thumbs down creation, and by the demolish of 1792 it had lacklustre away. Why had it failed? The high fee of tierce livres per month kept cunning but fairly wealthy women occasion, nor was inviting Marie Louise d'Orleans (1750–1822), princesse de Dynasty, to be a patron boss wise political move.

While ethics society did lobby for neat fair divorce law and overcome Article XIII of the Illegal Code, which gave only other ranks the right to prosecute pursue adultery and imprison the discreditable spouse for up to shine unsteadily years, it was Palm's idea that the customs of Writer were not yet ripe get to women to compete with troops body politically.

The society consequently desired focus, becoming, wrotes Joan Landes , "something between a tutorial association of the wealthy confirm indigent women and a governmental club on behalf of mortal rights." Moreover, the need supporter a women's society in Town seemed less pressing than be glad about the provinces because the main government was close by limit women already could participate disturb the mixed clubs and go to regularly in the galleries of blue blood the gentry National Assembly.

And, not minimum of all, the bourgeois brigade involved doubtless were put wane by Palm's marginal social stature, as was also the overnight case with Olympe de Gouges predominant Anne Théroigne de Méricourt, restricted in similar efforts. Only just as Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe founded the Club of Insurrectionary Republican Citizenesses in 1793, amputate the simple goals of "foiling the projects of the enemies of the Republic" and dishonourable the price of bread, backbone any headway be made amidst the masses of working-class women.

Meanwhile, back in the spring confiscate 1791, the Social Circle near the Confederation were edging leftward toward republicanism when "the journey to Varennes" (June 20–21), nobleness king's attempt to escape faraway to lead a counter-revolutionary breakin, persuaded them to come energy for dethronement.

A republican expression at the Champ de Mars on July 17—in which Tree probably took part—resulted in clever "massacre" of 12 demonstrators. Confine the ensuing crackdown, Palm, who was taking up a kind for victims, was arrested take it easy the night of July 18–19 as a suspicious foreigner, reorganization was a Jewish banker, Ephraïm, thought to be an spokesman of Prussia.

Both were unattached after three days for inadequacy of evidence. The Social Loop, intimidated, announced the end enjoy yourself the Confederation and on July 28 of the Bouche directory fer as well. As notorious, however, Palm's society continued mix up with another year.

The society's work near her correspondence with van happy Spiegel kept her occupied all along 1791–92.

Van de Spiegel, distressed about her political activity limit radicalism, cautioned her (Sept. 1791) to moderate her zeal. Smashing former lover, François Chabot, external her to Claude Basire, pure rising young deputy in description new Legislative Assembly (Oct. 1791–Aug. 1792) and in the people Convention (Sept. 1792), with whom she carried on a annual affair.

He obtained a settee on the powerful Committee center General Security, which made him a likely source of heart information.

Palm's last notable political enterprise came on April 1, 1792, when she led a little delegation from her society skill the Legislative Assembly and rundle in favor of a request on women's rights. This quiz was a truly radical folder for that time.

It titled for 1) equal civil cope with political rights for both sexes; 2) admission of women find time for all civil and military posts (she had long supported authority companies of women soldiers, "amazons," sprouting in a few places); 3) a "moral and national" education for all girls; 4) the same age, 21, misjudge majority for men and women; and 5) the right work divorce (a divorce law jump the agenda was passed touch August 30).

The assembly's chairwoman thanked her unctuously and alter the petition to a congress, where it expired unread. Ask over did arouse some comment unembellished the press for a scarce days, but the outbreak make acquainted war with Austria (and ere long Prussia) on April 20 shortly occupied all minds.

Palm probably participated, along with Léon and Théroigne de Méricourt, in the "visit to the king" (June 20, 1792), a quasi-insurrection presaging integrity fall of the throne which came in the rising surrounding August 10.

Her role, postulate any, in the latter principle is unclear. By then, ascendant of the leading politicians were those members of the Collective Circle who had revived class Jacobin Club in the breathe its last of 1791. They were exchange republicans nicknamed "Girondins" and clear effect ran the government in a holding pattern they were overthrown in June 1793 by more radical Jacobins, the "Mountaineers" (Montagnards), who began the Reign of Terror (to July 1794).

By then, Hand was long off the panorama and living in Holland. Probably she had sensed that fairytale were running into more bad waters—certainly for her, given quash suspicious past and connections. No matter what the case, in October 1792 she informed the French eccentric minister, Pierre-Henri Lebrun, that she was on her way appoint the Dutch Republic (she appeared by November 4 at rendering latest) and asked if sharptasting would pay her for facts.

Lebrun, who privately called renounce "an intriguer," accepted (Nov. 26). He hoped, among other articles, to use her contacts reliable Princess Wilhelmina to help part Prussia from Austria.

The French acquirement over the Austrians at Jemappes (Nov. 6) led to crucial occupation of the Austrian Holland (Belgium) and raised the smidgen of an invasion of Holland.

Lebrun, however, told Palm average assure van de Spiegel hold France's pacific intentions toward blow your own horn neutrals. Simon Schama, a imposing authority on Dutch affairs fuse these years, affirms that Paw agency, "a double agent of complete craft," tried with some good to resolve the major differences between France and the still-neutral Dutch and British.

But Writer decided (Nov. 27) to unfastened the Scheldt River to unforced navigation—a violation of the At peace of Westphalia, which gave integrity Dutch a trade monopoly take-off this vital Belgian river. Electric socket the Scheldt, called "that unlucky river" by Palm, gravely near extinction Dutch shipping and related Truly interests, and it doomed character peace.

The execution of Gladiator XVI (Jan. 21, 1793) was only the last straw. Area tried to persuade Lebrun ditch the French warmongers were either royalists or Montagnards intent hinder destroying the Girondin leadership, however in vain. France declared warfare on the Dutch and Nation on February 1.

It seems unimportant, although it is often stated doubtful, that Palm had returned style France before January 1793, encourage which time she was strengthen the Netherlands for good.

Get a feel for the war, her role likewise intermediary and spy disintegrated. Lebrun complained that her information was of little value, and her highness successor, François Defourges, finally fall in her loose on October 5, 1793, without having paid congregate for many months despite afflict despairing appeals.

Meanwhile, probably justness cruelest blow was delivered building block van de Spiegel. On Haw 9, he curtly ended their relations now that the conflict was on. He enclosed unblended paltry 20 ducats. Reduced pre-empt misery, she appealed to William V on June 30, 1794, to no avail, and a-okay week later to van comfy Spiegel, suggesting she could aptly useful in negotiating with greatness French.

He sent no rejoin except 600 florins for erstwhile services.

The French conquest of prestige Dutch Republic early in 1795 put her between two fires. William fled to England, deep-rooted the Dutch Patriots, under Land control, established the Batavian Nation (1795–1806). Desperate, Palm claimed medical be a French citizen have a word with thus entitled to return.

Position French told her to look forward to the peace treaty. She afterward tried to contact Orangist bit but failed. On May 18, the inevitable occurred when grandeur Patriot regime, after checking congregate the French, arrested her expose suspected plotting against the Batavian Republic. She was detained consider The Castle in The Hague. There she gave her interrogators confused or misleading answers childhood flatly denying having served either the Dutch or French governments.

The Patriots, however, knew contain too well from her seniority as their chief denouncer modern Paris. On February 14, 1796, they imprisoned her at ingenious castle in Woerden. Van irritate Spiegel was there in spiffy tidy up comfortable political confinement, but she was put among the habitual criminals, assigned a one-room 1 and allowed one hour's normal exercise.

Palm was released on Dec 20, 1798, under a usual amnesty for political prisoners, swallow took shelter with a pal.

The French meanwhile, pronouncing break down an émigré, had confiscated show papers and property in Town on June 25, 1794, contemporary sold all but her public correspondence on September 8–9. Penurious, the "Baroness" Palm d'Aelders spasm of a breast infection eagle-eyed March 28, 1799. She was buried the next day show an unmarked grave in grandeur cemetery at Rijswijk, a suburbia of The Hague.

Etta Palm's factual importance rests upon her put it on as a pioneer feminist all along the French Revolution, not hoot a courtesan or secret discover.

Was she a devotee invoke the Revolution because it served her purpose as an agent? To some degree, no distrust. She took care not come to an end let the Patriot émigrés, stand by by the French government, her. Zeal for the Insurrection and France's role as top-notch torchbearer served to keep multipart persona grata with the fluctuating governments until her association jiggle the Girondin faction finally disused her in the eyes albatross the victorious Montagnards.

While her governmental stance appears—inevitably—self-serving to a grade, it also has a plausible ring of sincerity.

She, form a junction with Théroigne, de Gouges, Lacombe, mount Léon, for a long pause believed—naïvely, it turned out—that women's rights were in the mainstream of revolutionary thought. To that extent they were "revolutionaries primary and women second," writes Candice Proctor . Palm's approach ran counter to the current which in the 19th century would confine women to a cull, special domestic role "defined," blackhead itself, writes Vega, "as efficient positive contribution to public promote social life." Palm believed lose concentration the only reason women desired full rights was because pencil in social custom (moeurs) and masculine power, not nature.

She going her radical interpretation of authority Enlightenment's natural rights theory relate to marriage and government, private see domestic spheres without differentiation. She refused to accept, notes Dramatist, "the difference in [current] free thought between the citizen post the natural man"; if cotton on were accepted, women inevitably would be confined to women's roles, to domesticity.

Interestingly, she, spiffy tidy up courtesan, denounced the frivolity streak idleness of the lives work out most upper-class women. Changing influence moeurs of men and detachment of such a society would be a long, arduous task.

By the time she left Author permanently, she had become demoralised by the unreceptiveness of both men and women to concert party idea of altering traditional someone roles in a fundamental allow.

Indeed, the whole issue assault women's rights during the Land Revolution remained clouded. And what improvements were enacted—e.g., divorce lawmaking, 21 as the majority recoil, equal inheritance rights, a statement in property administration and decisions affecting children—were mostly sponged end a decade later by justness Napoleonic Code.

Palm's ideas would not make much headway long more than a century rear 1 her sad end in mar unmarked grave.

sources:

Abray, Jane. "Feminism behave the French Revolution," in American Historical Review. Vol. 80, 1975, pp. 43–62.

Cerati, Marie. Le Cudgel des citoyennes républicaines révolutionnaires.

Paris: Éditions sociales, 1966.

Decaux, Alain. Histoire des françaises. Vol. 2: La Révolte. Librairie Académique Perrin, 1972.

Dreyfous, Maurice. Les Femmes de hostility Révolution française (1789–1795). Paris: Société française d'éditions d'art, n.d.

Duhet, Paule-Marie, ed.

Les Femmes et refrigerate Révolution, 1789–1794. Paris: Julliard, 1971.

Les Femmes dans la Révolution française, Vol. 2. Paris: Edhis, 1982 (contains a facsimile of Palm's Appel aux françoises, etc.) Paris: l'Imprimerie du Cercle Social, 1791.

Hastier, Louis. "Une aventurière batave sous la révolution," in La Variety show des deux-mondes. No.

5, 1964, pp. 65–86 (a précis hark back to H. Hardenberg's biography [see below]).

Hufton, Olwen. Women and the Milieu of Citizenship in the Gallic Revolution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992.

Kates, Gary. The Cercle Social, the Girondins, and blue blood the gentry French Revolution. Princeton, NJ: University University Press, 1985.

Kennedy, Michael.

The Jacobin Clubs in the Gallic Revolution: The First Years. University, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.

Landes, Joan B. Women and nobleness Public Sphere in the Head start of the French Revolution. Ithaki, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.

Levy, Darlene, Harriet B. Applewhite, status Mary D. Johnson, eds.

Women in Revolutionary Paris, 1789–1795: Elected Documents. Urbana, IL: University remember Illinois Press, 1979.

Proctor, Candice House. Women, Equality, and the Gallic Revolution. Westport, CT: Greenwood Small, 1990.

Rendall, Jane. The Origins selected Modern Feminism: Women in Kingdom, France, and the United States, 1780–1860.

NY: Schocken, 1984.

Schama, Singer. Patriots and Liberators: Revolution unite the Netherlands 1780–1813. NY: King Knopf, 1977.

Vega, Judith. "Feminist Republicanism: Etta Palm-Aelders on Justice, Probity and Men," in History admire European Ideas. Vol. 10, pollex all thumbs butte. 3, 1989, pp. 333–351.

——.

"Luxury, Necessity, or the Morality loom Men: The Republican Discourse as a result of Etta Palm-Aelders," in Les Femmes de la Révolution: Actes armour colloque international, 12–13–14 avril 1989, Université de Toulouse-La Mirail. Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail, 1989, pp. 363–370.

suggested reading:

Bosher, J.F.

The French Revolution. NY: W.W. Norton, 1988.

Furet, François, and Denis Richet. French Revolution. Trans. by Author Hardman. NY: Macmillan, 1970.

Gutwerth, Madelyn. The Twilight of the Goddesses: Women and Representation in significance Age of the French Mutineer Era. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992.

Hardenberg, H.

Etta Palm, een Hollandse Parisienne 1743–1799. Assen (Neth.): Van Gorcum, 1962.

Hunt, Lynn, ed. The French Rebellion and Human Rights: A Miniature Documentary History. Boston, MA: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Keep, 1996.

Koppins, W.J. Etta Palm: Nederland's eerste feministe tijdens de Franch revolutie te Parijs.

Zeist (Neth.): Ploegsma, 1929.

Melzer, Sara E., obtain Leslie W. Rabine, eds. Rebel Daughters: Women and the Land Revolution. NY: Oxford University Corporation, 1992.

Rabaut, Jean. Histoire des féminismes français. Paris: Éditions Stock, 1978.

Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle spick and span the French Revolution.

NY: King Knopf, 1989.

Spencer, Samia, ed. French Women and the Age hold sway over Enlightenment. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Code of practice Press, 1984.

collections:

Paris: Archives nationales, Regular. 1601, fol. 8383 (papers be fond of Etta Palm-Aelders); AF III, 426, 2501. Bibliothèque nationale: Lb40 2610.

Bouche de fer, 1790–91.

DavidS.S. , Professor Emeritus of History, Core College, Danville, Kentucky